Chapter Fourteen

Key Terms: Chapter 14

1.)   Administrative Regulatory Agency: An agency with combined legislative, executive, and judicial powers.

2.)   Administrative Responsibility: A concept that incorporates the values of accountability, competence, fairness, and responsiveness.

3.)   Clientele Groups: Fervent and substantial constituencies of particular agencies, often where benefits are concentrated but costs widely distributed.

4.)   Complaint Handling: A formal and expeditious way of receiving and processing complaints.

5.)   Cross- Subsidies: Surrogate market regulations that create a condition in which one set of customers pays prices that are intended to subsidize another set of customers.

6.)   Interpretative Rules: Rules that advise clients on how an agency interprets a statute or regulation.

7.)   Legislative Rules: Also known as substantive rules, these rules are authorized by statute and applied by well- established procedure with the full force and effect of law.

8.)   New Public Management (NPM): A general approach to regulation in stark contrast to the traditional managerial model; strongly market- oriented, promotes self- regulation, and trusts that the regulated and government can become partners.

9.)   Procedural Rules: Rules that govern an agency’s internal practices.

10.)  Regulatory Ratchet: Tendency of regulatory agencies to add more and more regulations to their list without deleting those that become obsolete.

11.)  Strategies of Support: Methods used by government agencies to seek regular input from clientele groups.

12.)  Substantive Rules: See legislative rules.

Chapter Thirteen

Key Terms:

1.)   Administrative: Law or regulation created or affected by the activities of governmental agencies that make rules and adjudicate cases concerning private rights and obligations and the limits necessary to control such agencies.

2.)   Dependent Regulatory Agency (DRA): Agency charged with regulating an economic activity but housed within an existing cabinet department.

3.)   Deregulation: Policy or process of reducing the national government’s overall regulatory presence.

4.)   Economic Regulation: Regulation of economic activities that focuses on market aspects of industrial behavior, such as rates, quality or quantity of service, and competitive practices in a particular industry or segment of the economy.

5.)   Independent Regulatory Agency (IRA): Agency charged with regulating some private economic activity and structured to be more or less independent of the executive branch departments or the legislative branch or both.

6.)   Interpretative Rules: An agency’s views of the meaning of its regulations or the statutes it administers.

7.)   Ombudsman: Official charged with processing and examining complaints against a bureaucracy.

8.)   Procedural Rule: Requirement for an agency’s organization, procedure, or practice.

9.)   Rule- Making Authority: Quasi-legislative ability to issue formal rules that cover a general class of activities and give specificity to a general legislative statute.

10.) Social Regulation: Concerns the nature and types of goods and services and the social effects of industrial production processes.

11.) Subsidiary Regulation: All regulatory action accompanying Social Security, Medicine, Medicaid, AFDC (now TANF), food stamps, veterans benefits, IRS regulations, and categorical grant program regulations; clientele are state and local governments.

12.) Tort Action: Civil suit seeking monetary damages for harm allegedly done to a plaintiff by a defendant.

13.) Trust: Psychological state of being willing to be vulnerable based on positive expectations of another’s intentions or behavior.

14.)  Whistle-Blower: Public employee who informs on the action of his or her own department or agency when such action is deemed by the individual to be improper, illegal, or unethical.

Chapter Twelve

Key Terms:

1.)    Asset management: An approach to government planning for the maintenance of public assets throughout their life cycle that (1) views the assets in terms of their return on investment and (2) establishes asset- disposal programs.

2.)    Backdoor Financing: Legislation authorizing a certain level of spending for an agency that can include language ordering the agency to spend the amount of money for specific uses.

3.)    Budget: Plan for projected income and expenditures; estimate of future costs and plan for the use of employees, supplies, and related resources.

4.)    Budget Cycle: Routine steps in the budget process involving the preparation, authorization, appropriation, implementation, and audit of the budget.

5.)    Budgeting: The formal mechanism to obtain, distribute, and monitor the revenues used by governmental administrative agencies.

6.)    Budget Obligation: Budget item that is separate from the actual outlay of funds and requires the future expenditure of funds.

7.)    Budget Process: Governmental decisions on spending needs and how to pay for them.

8.)    Capital Budget: Plans for large expenditures (such as bridges, buildings, fire engines) usually financed over extended periods of time (5 to 30 years).

9.)    Compliance Audit: An examination of the financial records of a government or an agency to assess whether it has financially complied with the law.

10.) Continuing Resolution: Authority Congress grants to agencies, in the absence of annual appropriation legislation, to continue spending funds based on the previous year’s budget.

11) Debt: Total amount of money owed by a government plus the accumulated interest owed on the total; accumulated unpaid yearly deficits plus interest.

12.) Decremental Budgeting: The opposite of incremental budgeting; budget makers seek to cut spending by concentrating on small reductions rather than on any agency’s program base.

13.) Deficit: The amount of money a government spends in a given fiscal year above what it collects from all revenue sources for that same period.

14.) Earmarked Funding: Legal requirement that revenues from a given source be expended for a given function or purpose--- such as gasoline taxes on highway construction or maintenance.

15.) Energy Audit: An assessment of how well an agency uses or wastes its energy resources.

16.) Entitlement: Legal obligation created through legislation that requires the payment of benefits to any person or unit of government that meets eligibility requirements set in the law.

17.) Excise Tax: Tax placed on the manufacture, sale, or consumption of various commodities.

18.) Executive Budget: Budget document prepared by the chief of the executive branch and submitted to the legislature for review, modification, and adoption.

19.) Fiscal Policy: Government actions designed to stabilize the private economy by manipulating taxing or spending policy and managing debt.

20.) Gross National Product (GNP): Total value (in constant dollars) of all goods and services produced by a nation in a given fiscal year.

21.) Incremental Budgeting: Method of budget preparation and review stressing small increments in existing budget allocations for current programs (referred to as the budget base).

22.) Indexed Costs: Policy or law ties awards or benefits to the cost of living; they go up automatically as the cost index increases.

23.) Legislative Budget: A type of budget in which the legislative body (state legislature, county board of supervisor, or city council) prepares the budget document after departments submit their budget requests directly to the body (usually to a specific committee).

24.) Line-Item Budget: Classification of budget accounts to narrow, detailed objects of expenditure used by an agency, typically without reference to the ultimate purpose or objective served by the expenditure.

25.) Monetary Policy: Efforts to control the supply of money available to an economy by regulating the supply of currency in circulation and manipulating (credit) interest rates.

26.) Operating Budget: A budget, or plan of revenues and expenditures, that concerns the annual expenditures for such expendable items as salaries, wages, pensions, employee benefits, supplies, contracts for equipment repair and maintenance, new-equipment purchases, and utilities.

27.) Performance Audit: An assessment of an agency’s efficiency and how well it has achieved its stated program goals.

28.) Performance Budget: Budget that focuses on an agency’s objectives and accomplishments; used to increase management responsibility and accountability.

29.) Priorities: The values of government expressed in its expenditure and revenue decisions.

30.) Privatization: When a service previously provided by a government agency is now produced by a nongovernment organization (also often referred to as contracting out).

31.) Program Budget: Budget focusing on an agency’s programs, as in Planning Programming Budget System (PPBS); a tool for defining priorities and evaluating accomplishments.

32.)  Progressive Tax: Any tax in which people with higher incomes pay a larger percentage in taxes than do people of lesser means; generally, graduated income taxesare progressive.

33.) Recisions: The actual cancellations of appropriated funding.

34.) Regressive Tax: Any tax in which people with lower incomes pay a higher overall percentage of their income in taxes than do people of greater income. Generally, sales taxes are regressive.

35.) Sequestration: Congressional mandates that defer spending of funds from one fiscal quarter to another to build cash reserves or to slow down the effects of spending on an economy.

36.) Social Audit: An assessment of how well an agency copes with social issues in an organizational context.

37.) Tax Expenditure: Practice of giving favorable tax breaks (loopholes) for certain kinds of spending by individuals as well as to nonprofit or for-profit organizations.

38.) Zero-Based Budgeting: Budget process that rejects incremental budgeting by demanding a justification of the entire budget (base and incremental increases).

Chapter Eleven

Key Terms:

1.      Communication: the exchange of information and the transmission of meaning; the very essence of organization and a social process that influences the functioning of any organization; best viewed in relation to the social system in which it occurs and the particular function it performs in that system.

2.      Coding Process: any system that receives information has a characteristics coding process, a limited set of coding categories to which it assimilates the information received; results in omission, selection, refinement, elaboration, distortion, and transformation.

3.      Crisscrossing information: A subordinate in one unit talks to a boss in another unit, or vice versa.

4.      Downward Communication: From superior to subordinate, following the authority pattern of hierarchical positions; used to direct, coordinate, and control.

5.      Efficiency of Communication: Measured by the number of communication flowing in a given network.

6.      Formal Communication: Written communication that follows the formal chain of command in an organization; influenced by the size of an organization and its public nature.

7.      Horizontal Communication: Movement of information among peers at the same organizational level.

8.      Informal Communication: Oral or written communication that does not follow formal channels.

9.      Operational Feedback: Systematic information acquisition and analysis closely tied to the organization’s ongoing functions and sometimes an integral part of those functions.

10.     Upward Communication: Information that ascends the hierarchical levels of an organization and provides task coordination and emotional and social support to the individual; flows from subordinate to superior.

Chapter Ten.

Key Terms:

1.)   Accountability: Degree to which a person must answer to some higher authority for actions in the larger society or within an agency or organization.

2.)   Active- Negative: Type of presidential personality wherein the president has a driving need to achieve and maintain power; Woodrow Wilson, Herbert Hoover, Lyndon Johnson, and Richard Nixon are good examples.

3.)   Active- Positive: Type of presidential personality in which the president desires to achieve results above all else; Franklin Roosevelt, Harry Truman, John Kennedy, and Jimmy Carter are examples.

4.)   Authority: Legal basis by which one has rights to use an organization’s power and resources.

5.)   Caretaker: Style of leadership in which the executive is a political conservative seeing him- or herself as a custodian of the status quo.

6.)   Casework: Services performed by legislators and their staffs on request from and on behalf of constituents.

7.)   Charisma: Leadership based on the personality of the leader rather than on a formal position.

8.)   Congressional Oversight: Monitoring by U.S. Congress of executive branch agencies’ activities and actions to assess if laws are being properly implemented.

9.)   Credibility: Recognition by an organization that a leader is competent to use the organization’s powers and command its resources.

10.) Demagogue: Style of leadership that rallies support among followers by appeals to emotions and prejudice.

11.) Executive Accountability: constitutionally specified role of the president as chief executive and responsible for enforcing laws, court decisions, and treaties.

12.) Frustrated Warrior: Style of leadership in which an unsuccessful policy entrepreneur ends up simply frustrated in his or her attempts to lead, usually because of legislative branch opposition.

13.) Functions of Leadership: To define an organization’s missions and role, the institutional embodiment of purpose, defending and institution’s integrity, and ordering internal conflict.

14.) Leadership: Exercise of authority in directing the work of others; may be formal or informal.

15.) Legislative Accountability: Legislative branch’s responsibility to answer for how government is run.

16.) Passive- Negative: Type of presidential personality in which the president emphasizes civic virtue; George Washington, Calvin Coolidge, and Dwight Eisenhower are good examples.

17.) Passive- Positive: Type of presidential personality in which the president seeks to be loved and revered; William Taft, Warren Harding, and Ronald Reagan are examples.

18.) Policy Entrepreneur: Style of leadership involving a progressive and highly activist executive who proposes and funds new programs.

19.) Trait Theory: Belief or assumption that leadership is based on traits that leaders possess that impart unique characteristics and qualities that enable them to assume responsibility. A belief in “born” leadership.

20.) Transformational Leadership: Leadership that strives to change an organization’s culture and goals, reflecting the leader’s ability to develop a values- based vision for the organization and to convert the vision into reality and sustain it over time.

Chapter 9

Key Terms:

• Affirmative Action: A policy or program intended to hire into public service or to promote to higher levels citizens from minority backgrounds who previously were excluded or underrepresented in the workforce, including women, African Americans, Hispanic Americans, and Native Americans.
• Civil Service: Term for all nonmilitary employees of government; sometimes refers to a merit system as opposed to a patronage system.
• Collective Bargaining: Union bargaining on behalf of a group of employees as opposed to an individual worker representing him-or herself.
• Comparable worth: A principle of equal compensation-that is, the same rate of pay for work judged to be comparable in value to the employer or to society; used to redress past pat inequities, particularly with respect to women.
• Counterbureaucracies: Agencies, such as merit system protection broads at federal, state, or local levels, charged with protecting employee right and the efforts of public agencies to balance managerial flexibility with merit principles.
• Equity Pay Act of 1963: federal Law to have equal pay work, especially for women workers.
• General Schedule: The pay scale and job classification system for the federal government; has ratings 1 through 15.
• Human Resource Development: The process of (and the unit or agency responsible for) administering and making policy for people and positions with the public sector.
• Impasse Resolution: A occurring when either labor or management concludes that no further progress can be made toward a settlement during labor negotiations; typically leads to one or more impasse procedures-mediation, fact-finding, arbitration, or referendum. 
• Merit System: Approach to staffing based on formal qualifications for selection, promotion, and retention of employees rather than party affiliation.
• Office of Personnel Management: the federal agency responsible for managing the national’s government’s personnel.
• Patronage System: the system of selecting employees or awarding contracts on the basis of political party loyalty or affiliation.
• Performance Appraisal: formal method of evaluating an employee’s work performance; used for promotion and retention and to document disciplinary action.
• Personnel: The employees of an organization; also refers to the personnel function and the administrative unit responsible for it.
• Position classification: A system of job description used to organize jobs under a civil service merit system into classes or categories based on the duties and responsibility; the purpose is to delineate authority, establish chains of command, and denote pay scales.
• Public Personnel Administration: The totality of government organization, policies, procedures, and processes to match the specific needs of public agencies and the people who staff them.
• Recruitment: the process of advertising job opening for qualified candidates for an agency from which managers can choose.
• Reduction in Force (RIF): Laying off public personnel.
• Reverse Discrimination: Compensation for the past discrimination against racial, ethnic, or gender minorities that has the effect of discriminating against majority members of society (mostly white males); typically involves the use of fixed quotas to ensure minority hiring or promotion.
• Seniors Executive Office (SEO): Established in 1978 by the Civil Service Reform Act, The SES promotes professional growth, mobility, and versatility among upper-grade career officers and some political appointees.
• Spoils System: Practice of hiring for jobs or awarding contracts on the basis of party loyalty and connections and some political appointees.
• Sunshine Bargaining Laws: Laws that require open proceedings among state and local governments concerning negotiations with public employee union.
• Union: Group employees who establish formal organization to represent them when negotiating with management over wage and working conditions or in cases of disciplinary action.

Chapter 8

Key Terms:

• Evaluation Research: An attempt to assess specific policy option by conducting experiment, assessing their outcomes, and recommending whether or not an experimental policy option should be more probable implemented. 
• Policy Analysis: Study to assess the probable effects of a policy.
• Process-Oriented Management: Style of management that focuses on objectives limited to feedback and process objectives.
• Program Evaluation: The systematic analysis of any activity or group of activities conducted by a government to assess short-and long-term effects, both anticipated and unanticipated.
• Results-Oriented Management: Style of management that stresses realistic, measurable, and outcomes-oriented program objectives.
• Stakes: How much an individual or an agency stands to gain or lose, depending on the outcome of policy bargaining.
• Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF): Welfare-to-welfare approach enacted in the 1996 federal welfare reform law.

Chapter 7:

Key Terms:

• Critical Path Method (CPM): An analytical management technique that seeks the path with the smallest margin of extra resources with which to complete all assigned program activities. 
• Focus Group: A smaller number of individuals (generally a dozen or fewer) who share a common characteristic and are brought together to discuss a product or service under the leadership of trained observer.
• Management: The process of running an organization; the use of resources to accomplish goals; the individuals who are formally authorized to run an organization.
• Managerialism: An entrepreneurial approach to public or policy management that emphasizes a set of beliefs that better management (that is, a reinvigorated scientific management) will solve a wide range of economic and social ills.
• Management by Objectives (MBO): An approach to program and policy management that defines short-and long-term objectives and keeps a record of actual program results to determine effectiveness.
• Objective: A short-term goal; it must be met on the way to a larger overall achievement.
• Operational research (OR): A management technique that stresses efficiency by maximizing some “payoff” function clearly within the goals being sought; comes into play only after value choice have been make; replies on the use of probability theory, queuing techniques, and mathematical model building to allocate and use resources within a designated subsystem.
• Opportunity costs: the value resources would have when used in the best possible way or simply another specified alternative way.
• Organizational development (OD): A process for increasing an organization’s effectiveness by stressing that maximum effectiveness is achieved by integrating an individual’s desire for personal growth with organizational goals.
• Performance Management: The systematic integration of an organization’s efforts to achieve its objectives.
• Productivity bargaining: Method applied by public managers to use private-sector approaches to contract negotiation; links employee wage increases to various cost-cutting efforts, including increasing on-the-job productivity.
• Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT): A management analytical tool   that maps out a series of steps that will carry out a program.
• Quality Circle: Small group of 3 to 15 workers meet regularly to discuss, analyze, and solve problems they experience on the job.
• Reengineering: A fundamental rethinking and redesign of organizational processes to bring about significant improvements in costs or quality of services.
• Stakeholders: People affected directly or indirectly by an organization’s activities.
• Strategic Management: A philosophy of management that links strategic planning to an organization’s day-to-day operation and decisions.
• Strategic Planning: A set of processes used by an organization to assess a strategic situation and develop strategy for the future.
• Strategy: The overall conduct of major enterprise to achieve long-term goals; the pattern found in a series of organizational decisions.
• SWOT Analysis: A review of an agency’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats.
• Tactics: The short-term, immediate decisions that, in their totality, lead to the achievement of strategic goals.
• Total Quality Management: A new term for quality control in its most expanded sense of a total and continuing concern for quality and the production of goods and services; seeks organizational performance at an optimal level.

Chapter 6: The Criminal Justice System

Chapter 6

• Key Terms:
  • Bargaining: An approach to decision making and a model articulated by Charles Lindblom; involves incrementalism to analyze policy decision.
  • Bureaucratic Politics Model: A model suggested by graham Allison; views policy decisions as the result of a game and the push-pull of bureaucratic actors.
  • Contracting out: Refers to having work performed outside an agency’s own permanent staff of employees; a major means of privatization and an attempt to reduce the size of the public sector.
  • Decision Making: The process of choosing on curse of action from among the choices available.
  • ExComm: The National Security Council Executive Committee, which managed the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 during the Kennedy Administration.
  • Externality: The cost generated by one person or organization that is passed on to another or to society at large.
  • Incremental Approach: Decision-making model in which a serious limited, successive comparisons among a narrow range of options through continual incremental adjustments determining the outcome of the decision.
  • Mixed Scanning: A model of decision making suggested by Amitai Etzioni; sees decision as the results of fundamental and nonfundamental choices that embody aspects of the rational model and the bargaining model of decision making.
  • Negative Externality: An effect on decision making that imposes social costs on the community, such as air and water pollution by private-sector industry.
  • Participative Model: A decision-making model that assumes participation by all who will be affected by it, thereby ensuring their participation in the process; the rationality of the decision depends on their inclusion.
  • Pervasive Ambiguity: A decision situation with so much uncertainty that the assumptions of the rational model do not apply; an assumption of the garbage-can model of decision making.
  • Privatization: The sale of government services and operations to the private sector.
  • Public Choice Decision-Making Model: A view of decision that assumes that (1) the self-interest of government officials causes inefficient programs and (2) the simple solution is to turn over as many public programs as possible to the private sector.
  • Satisfice: Herbert Simon’s distinctive term for an organizational decision that does not maximize, but only satisfies, or suffices, or (combined) satisfies.
  • Sunk Costs: Certain irrecoverable costs associated with prior commitments of resources to pursue a policy; they raise the stakes in decision making.

Chapter Five: Alternative Theories of Organizational Behavior

Key Terms:


Key Terms:

• Administrative Doctrine: The rules and standard operating procedures of an organization that embody its basic values and tenets.
• Authority: The rightful power to make decisions within legally defined limits, with the expectation of widespread compliance.
• Bureaucracy: The totality of government offices or all government employees; also used as a dictionary term to refer to an inefficient organization plagued by red tape or calcified into an inflexible structure.
• Bureaucratic Dysfunction: Pathological aspects of bureaucracies that make them inefficient; unthinking adherence to rules as ends rather than as means; a source of red tape.
• Charismatic Authority: Authority that rests on personal devotion to individuals because of their sanctity, heroism, or exemplary character.
• Classical Theory: The original theory about the organizations that closely relates them to military organizations and emphasizes hierarchical structure, chain of command, division of labor, formal authority system, and bureaucratic behavior.
• Closed System: An organization made analogous to a physical system, such as a machine, whose operation is unaffected by its environment.
• Efficiency: Accomplishing production-related economic goals in the most expeditious manner and at the least cost.
• Esprit De Corps: Group spirit; a sense of team shared by those in the same group or undertaking.
• Feedback: the positive or negative effects of the outputs of a system on its environment.
• Group Cohesion: Shared assumptions, beliefs, and values that help organizational members operate as a team.
• Group Dynamics: A subfield of organizational behavior that stresses how groups develop and behave internally and externally.
• Hawthorne Experiments:  a set of management studies conducted by Elton Mayo and associates from the Harvard Business School in the late 1920s and the early 1930s at the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company near Chicago; instrumental in developing the human relations school of organization theory.
• Humanistic Theory: A reaction to the overly authoritarian perceptions of classical organizational theory; approach emphasizes the creativity of human behavior and views efficiency and productivity as strongly influenced by informal aspects of organization; humanists stress noneconomic needs as motivating workers’ performance.
• Inputs: Resources such as equipment, supplies, and the energy of employees used by an organization.
• Learning Organization: Peter Senge’s term for an organization that nurtures new patterns of thinking so that its members learn together to improve both the organization and their personal lives.
• Legal-Relation Authority: Based on a legally established impersonal order-the rule of law.
• Motivation: All of the factors of the working environment that either positively or negatively affects on an individual’s work.
• Needs Hierarchy: A set of five goals or basic needs arranged in a hierarchical order; associated with Abraham Maslow and the human relations school of organization theory.
• Neoclassical Theory: A perspective that revises and expands on classical organization theory.
• New Public Management Theory: A school of organization that advocates a shift from administrative bureaucracy to entrepreneurial organization and the use of the public choice model of decision making that views decisions as market driven.
• Open System: An organization made analogous to a biological entity that lives in and exchanges inputs and outputs with its environment.
• Organization: A group of people structured into a division of labor and working together to achieve common goals.
• Organizational Development: An approach to organizational management that focuses on analyzing organizational problems and findings solutions.
• Organization Theory: A set of laws or propositions that explains how people and groups behave in various organizational structures.
• Outputs: Products or services of a system that affect its environment and create feedback.
• POSDCORB: An acronym for planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, and budgeting; the term was coined by Luther Gulick in 1937 to stress the essential elements of the work of the chief executive.
• Principles of Management: Fundamental “truths” or working hypotheses that shape management thinking and action.
• Quality Circles: Small groups of 3 to 15 workers who meet regularly to discuss, analyze, and solve problems they experience on the job.
• Scientific Management: An approach to managing people in an organization that believes there is “one best way” to do any task; it is the fastest and the most efficient method to do so and is discovered through a scientific process of observation.
• System: Any organized collection of parts united by prescribed interactions and designed for the accomplishment of a specific goal or task.
• System Theory: A theory of organization that emphasizes in interactive and interrelated set of elements- an environment, input, processes, output, and feedback.
• Theory X: A term coined by Douglas McGregor that describes as set of assumptions about human nature that guide an individual on how to manage people; it emphasizes that people dislike work, must be threatened to perform, prefer to be directed, and avoid responsibility.
• Theory Y: A term coined by Douglas McGregor that describes as set of assumptions about human nature that guides management of workers; it holds that work is natural, workers can be self-directed, and imagination, ingenuity, and creativity.
• Theory Z: Patters of organization and operations of contemporary Japanese corporations that assume productivity is a function of social or managerial organization and can be greatly enhanced by communication, feedback, and worker involvement.
• Total Quality Management (TQM): A new phrase for equality control in its most expanded sense of total and continuing concerns for quality and production of goods and services; seeks organizational performance at an optimal level
• Traditional Authority: Authority that rests on the belief in the sacredness of immemorial traditions; obligation of personal loyalty to chief selected in the traditional way.

Chapter Four: Administration in the Federal System: Intergovernmental Relations and Constitutional Sources of Values

Key Words:

1. Block Grants: Grants from higher-level governments to lower-level governments that are distributed on the basis of a statutory formula. They may be used in various ways within a broad policy area, with considerable discretion left to the recipient governments.
2. Categorical Grants: Grants-in-aid that are limited to specific and narrowly defined activities- for example, creating small green spaces, or “parklets,” in an urban development project area.
3. Confederal System: A system of organizing government whereby power and authority resides in subnational or state governments that collectively establish an overarching government to which they delegate some powers while retaining veto power over the national entity.
4. Cooperative Federalism: An era of U.S. federalism from the 1930s to the 1950s that emphasized national, state, and local governments as cooperating agents who interacted with each other to jointly face and solve common problems.
5. Creative Federalism: An era of U.S. federalism in the 1960s characterized by joint planning and decision making at all levels of government, including partnerships with businesses and nonprofit social organizations.
6. Devolution: The transfer of power from a central authority to a local government.
7. Dual Federalism: An era in which each level of government was viewed as supreme within its areas of responsibilities, with relatively distinctive functional divisions of authority and independent operations by bureaucratic agencies. Limited intergovernmental funding.
8. Entitlement: A government benefit required by law provided to eligible individuals, groups, or other governments, such as Medicare, Medicaid, and Social Security retirement benefits.
9. Externalities: The costs or benefits from one thing affecting another or those not accounted for in free-market exchanges; those costs or benefits then accrue to someone other than the buyer or seller.

10.  Federalism: A system of government in which an overarching national government shares power with subnational governments.

11.  Formula Grants: A type of grant-in-aid in which a higher level of government (national or state) provides funds to a lower level for stipulated purposes and distributes them according to a set formula that treats all applicants uniformly.

12.  Horizontal Federalism: Concerns the relationships among governmental units at the same level: state-to-state, country-to-country, and city-to-city.

13.  Intergovernmental Relations: Acomplex set of interrelationships among federal, state, and local governments that involve political, fiscal, programmatic, and administrative progresses in which higher-level governments share revenues with lower-level governments, with special conditions attached that the lower-level units must meet to receive in the financial aid.

14.  Laissez-faire: A term for the economic principle that government should “let the people do as they chose” or generally keep its hands off regulating the private sectors’ economic life.

15.  Mandating:  higher level of government obligating a lower level to offer or provide some good or programs as a matter of law or as a prerequisite to full or partial funding for either that program or some other, related programs.

16.  New Federalism: An era of federalism from 1968 to1980, attributed by president Richard Nixon, that returned more autonomy to the states and emphasized blocked grants rather than project or categorical grants.

17.  Project Grants: A type of grant-in-aid given from a higher to a lower level of government that must be applied for, with an individual project as its focus. Many strings are attached. Project grants are more numerous that formula grants, generally offer fewer funds, and often require matching funds from the recipient government.

18.  Renewed Federalism: An era of federalism in the 1980s promoted by president Ronald Reagan that emphasized economic capitalism; individual rights; limited government; rationality in government decision making by assessing costs and benefits of federal programs, especially regulatory ones, and devolved authority and funding down to the state and local levels.

19.  Substate regionalism: A multijurisdictional cooperative arrangement between or among local government entities, such as metropolitan special districts or councils of government that provides a regionwide view or approach to a local problem. Most often used for planning, developing, transportation, and environmental policy problem that affects a whole region.

20.  Unfunded Mandates: federal or state laws that impose on lower-level governments a program that requires expenditures but no implementing funds.

21.  Unitary System: : A form of government in which authority is centralized but some responsibilities may be delegated to smaller administrative units; in doing so, the upper level freely grants authority but may limit or even rescind it without the consent of the lower level. Each state within the United States is a unitary system with respect to its local government.

22.  Vertical federalism: The upper-lower relationships between governments at different levels: national-to-state, state-to-local, and national-to-local.

23.  Vertical Functional Autocracies: Largely self-governing professional guilds of members of bureaucracies at the federal, state, or local levels who are able to function as autocracies, running a policy area as a functional fiefdom mostly independent of other agencies or branches of government. Associated with the picket-fence model of federalism.

Chapter Three: The Anatomy of Public Organizations: Bureaucratic Power and Politics

Key Terms:

1.      Acronyms: words formed from the first (or first few) letters of a series of words

2.     Administrative Decentralization: the delegation of authority to subordinate levels within a department or agency

3.      Bureaucratic Ideology: a verbal image of that portion of the good society that is revelant to the functions of a particular bureau as well as the chief means of contstructing that portion.

4.     Groupthink: a mode of thinking within a cohesive group; a practice engaged in by people whose agreement seeking overrides a realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action. The drive for consensus at any costs suppresses dissent.

5.      GSPs: government service providers; entrepreneurial electronic communications ventures wherin one government sells its IT services to another.

6.     Ideology: a verbal image of the good society and chief means of construction such a society.

7.      Jargon: The specialized vocabulary and idioms of those who are in the same type of work or profession.

8.     Organizational culture: how an organization views its role in broader society; a complex of assumptions, attitudes, beliefs, norms and values that guide an organization.

9.     Place-based ownership models of economic enterprises: a variety of models or approaches used by local governments to promote economic development which are based on the local geographic locale of the enterprise.

10.   Political decentralization: the allocation of powers among territories or areas governed by subunits.

11.    Privatization: the process of returning to the private sector certain property or functions previously owned or performed by government.

12.   Reinventing government: the latest manifestation of the progressive tradition of continually improving government by tinkering with its operations—in this case, by emphasizing privatization.

13.   results-based budgeting: approach to the budgeting process that eschews incrementalism and scross the board cuts and instead asks fundamental questions about the priorities in governmental servies.

14.   Stovepipes: beltway jagon for the inability of different agencies to share information.

15.   Subsystem: a political alliance of an agency, related interest groups, and legislative committees that shares values and preferences in a particular area of public policy making.

Review Questions:

s1.      Compare and contrast internal versus external foundations of bureaucratic power. How does the nature of an organization’s structure influence its reliance or internal versus external sources of power?

2.      What roles does bureaucratic ideology play in an organization’s culture? How is a bureau’s ideology used to influence the external environment of an agency? How is it used to support internal cohesion?

           The role Bureaucratic ideology is helping bureaucracy cope with uncertainty by providing shortcuts to calculating which policies, procedures, and programs will be most acceptable to its external society. A bureaucratic ideology flows downward from the organization’s higher levels of formal authority and infuses its communication systems, both formal and informal. Top-level officials develop the ideology to provide an efficient means of communicating with both the external environment and bureau insiders. Higher management faces pressing needs to communicate to people who might not be disposed to listen carefully and well, especially when a crisis develops or an environment rapidly changes. The bureau ideology states agency goals in terms of the organization’s ultimate policy objectives in serving the broader society. The verbal images of the bureau’s ideology enable others- legislators, voters, officials with other relevant agencies, related interest group members, and even lower-level bureau members-to use the ideology in decision making without paying excessively high information costs.

3.      How do acronyms and jargon enhance bureaucratic expertise and power? How do they contribute to the problem of stovepiping?

           Acronyms help enhance bureaucratic expertise and power through shortcuts and providing meaning to those familiar with them; but to those who do not know them, they can seem incoherent, incomprehensible, and occasionally outlandish. Jargon helps enhance bureaucratic ideology by creating new words carry certain value connotations.

4.      Compare and contrast an agency’s internal and external sources of values. Is value conflict the result of different values coming from internal versus external sources? Can value conflicts emerge within both internal and external sources?

           Yes, value conflicts can emerge because working with different people with different nationalities, religion, point of view about life, and the ways of doing and thinking in approaching things and idea.